All Issue

2026 Vol.48 Preview Page

Article

A Structural Analysis and International Legal Review of the Trump Administration’s Deep Seabed Mineral Policy

트럼프 행정부 심해저 광물 정책의 구조적 분석과 국제법적 고찰

Youngdawng Moh1
,
Cheolkyu Maeng2*
모 영동1
,
맹 철규2*
1Ocean Law Policy Institute, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan 49111, Korea
2Department of International Commerce, Daejin University, Pocheon 11159, Korea
1한국해양과학기술원 해양법정책연구소 (49111) 부산광역시 영도구 해양로 385
2대진대학교 국제통상학과 (11159) 경기도 포천시 호국로 1007
*Corresponding Author
13 July 2026. pp. 1-23
PDF XML Citation
Abstract

This study conducts a structural analysis of the multidimensional background underlying Executive Order 14285, promulgated by the Trump administration in 2025, and critically examines its validity under international law. Rejecting a superficial approach that treats the Executive Order as a stand-alone document detached from its broader context, the research explicitly elucidates three core drivers precipitating this directive: first, the enduring political tension between the U.S. and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Part XI; second, the legal vacuum generated by the International Seabed Authority (ISA)’s prolonged delay in adopting exploitation regulations; and third, the intensifying geopolitical hegemonic competition over critical mineral supply chains. Consequently, the analysis reveals that the U.S. approach transcends a mere political declaration, serving instead as a profound reflection of its intertwined diplomatic, defense, and economic imperatives. Building upon this robust structural foundation, the study scrutinizes three pivotal legal issues utilizing the UN International Law Commission (ILC)’s Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law as the primary analytical framework. The jurisprudential appraisal yields the following findings. First, under the law of treaties, the U.S. signature on the 1994 Implementing Agreement cannot be legally construed as constituting definitive 'consent to be bound.' Second, while the UNCLOS(United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea) Part XI regime has been partially embraced as general practice, the actual existence of opinio juris remains highly ambiguous. Third, the U.S. claim to 'persistent objector' status fails to fully satisfy the strict criteria of persistence and consistency mandated by ILC Conclusion 15, given its contradictory historical state practice. Ultimately, in light of the rigorous identification principles of the ILC Draft Conclusions, this paper concludes that asserting the absolute normative binding force of UNCLOS Part XI over the U.S.—a non-party state—at the present stage entails significant jurisprudential difficulties and empirical limitations. Nevertheless, considering the inherent limitations of the ILC Draft Conclusions alongside evolving state practice and international legal theories, this jurisprudential appraisal should not remain confined to the static conclusions of the present stage, but must be continuously expanded through dynamic research.

Keywords
Executive Order 14285
UNCLOS Part XI
deep seabed mining
customary international law
persistent objector
References
1

김영구 (2002) 한국과 바다의 국제법. 효성출판사, 서울, 948 p

2

박기갑 (2019) 2018년 제70차 회기 유엔 국제법위원회 작업현황과 제73차 유엔총회 제6위원회 논의결과. 국제법평론 52:101–205

10.25197/kilr.2019.52.101
3

윤강욱 (2018) 미국대통령 행정명령의 구조와 효력에 관한 연구. 행정법연구 54:45-66.

10.35979/ALJ.2018.08.54.45
4

Albright M (1994) Statement by the permanent representative of the United States to the United Nations. In: Official records of the General Assembly, 48th session, 99th plenary meeting, 27 July 1994. United Nations, New York, A/48/PV.99, agenda item 36

5

AP News (2025) Companies join a deep-sea mining rush after Trump executive order, as regulators fast-track permits. Associated Press News. https://apnews.com/article/trump-deepsea-mining-executive-orders-oceans-environment-399faab6fc32922b4c533d3bad9c1ca5 Accessed 25 Jun 2026

6

Biggs G (1980) Deep seabed mining and unilateral legislation. Ocean Development & International Law 8(3):223–257

10.1080/00908328009545650
7

Churchill R, Lowe V, Sander A (2022) The law of the sea. 4th ed. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 920 p

10.7765/9781526159038
8

Collins HM (1981) Deep seabed hard mineral resources act—matrix for United States deep seabed mining. Nat Resour Lawyer 13(3):571–580

9

CRS (2025) U.S. interest in seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction: brief background and recent developments. Congressional Research Service, Washington DC, CRS In Focus IF12608

10

Dingwall A (2021) Ocean governance and the deep seabed: the legal framework for exploitation. Marine Policy 132:104–121

11

Economy E (2026) How China wins the future: Beijing's strategy to seize the new frontiers of power. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/china/how-china-wins-future-elizabeth-economy Accessed 25 Jun 2026

12

ENB (2026) Summary of the 31st session of the international seabed authority council (Part I). Earth Negotiations Bulletin. https://enb.iisd.org Accessed 20 Mar 2026

13

Executive Office of the President (2025) Executive order 14285: Unleashing America’s offshore critical minerals and resources. Federal Register 90. https://www.federalregister.gov Accessed 27 Mar 2026

14

Gamble JK Jr, Frankowska M (1984) The 1982 convention and customary law of the sea: observations, a framework, and a warning. San Diego Law Rev 21(3):491–511

15

Garner BA (1999) Black’s law dictionary. 7th edn. West Group, St. Paul, 1738 p

16

Goldie LFE (1979) Customary international law and deep seabed mining. Syracuse J Int'l L & Com 6(2):173–198

17

Harrison J (2011) Making the law of the sea: a study in the development of international lawmaking. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 316 p

18

IEA (2025) Global critical minerals outlook 2025. International Energy Agency, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025 Accessed 25 Jun 2026

19

ISA (2025) Statement on the US executive order: Unleashing America’s offshore critical minerals and resources. International Seabed Authority. https://www.isa.org.jm Accessed 27 Mar 2026

20

ISA (2026) Exploration contracts. International Seabed Authority. https://isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/ Accessed 25 Jun 2026

21

Joyner CC (1986) Legal implications of the concept of the common heritage of mankind. Int Comp Law Q 35(1):190–199

10.1093/iclqaj/35.1.190
22

Kardon IB, Camacho S (2023) Why China, not the United States, is making the rules for deep-sea mining. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/12/why-china-not-the-united-states-is-making-the-rules-for-deep-sea-mining Accessed 25 Jun 2026

23

Koh T (2020) Building a new legal order for the oceans. NUS Press, Singapore, 353 p

10.2307/j.ctv136c5rx
24

Kraska J (2025) The U.S. executive order on seabed mining is consistent with international law. Int Law Stud 106(1):499–514

25

Lathrop CG (2025) The latest Trump threat to international law: unilaterally mining the area. EJIL: Talk! (6 May 2025). https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-latest-trump-threat-to-international-law-unilaterally-mining-the-area/ Accessed 25 Jun 2026

26

Morell JB (1992) The law of the sea: an historical analysis of the 1982 treaty and its rejection by the United States. McFarland, Jefferson, 482 p

27

Oxman BH (1993) The new law of the sea. Am Bar Assoc J 69:156–162

28

Pedrozo R (2022) Reflecting on UNCLOS forty years later: what worked, what failed. Int Law Stud 99:874–943

29

Republic of Nauru (2024) Letter to ISA council president re: addition of agenda item to the March 2025 council agenda. International Seabed Authority. https://www.isa.org.jm Accessed 27 Mar 2026

30

TMC (2025a) World First: TMC USA Submits application for coomercial recovery of deep-sea minerals in the high seas under U.S. seabed mining code [Press Release]. The Metals Company. https://investors.metals.co/news-releases/news-release-details/world-first-tmc-usa-submits-application-commercial-recovery-deep/ Accessed 25 Jun 2026

31

TMC (2025b) The Metals Company to apply for permits underExisting U.S. mining code for deep-sea minerals inthe high seas in second quarter of 2025 [Press Release]. The Metals Company. https://investors.metals.co/news-releases/news-release-details/metals-company-apply-permits-under-existing-us-mining-code-deep Accessed 27 Mar 2026

32

TMC (2026) TMC USA files first consolidated deep-seabed mining application, increasing expected commercial recovery permit area to 65,000 km2 [Press Release]. The Metals Company . https://investors.metals.co/news-releases/news-release-details/tmc-usa-files-first-consolidated-deep-seabed-mining-application Accessed 24 Jun 2026

33

US (1995) President's transmittal of the United Nations convention on the law of the sea and the agreement relating to the implementation of part XI to the U.S. Senate with commentary. Int Leg Mater 34:1393–1448

10.1017/S002078290002386X
34

Van Zÿl U (1993) The “common heritage of mankind” and the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention: principle, pain or panacea? Comp Int Law J South Afr 26(1):49–66

35

Yongming Z (2005) The common heritage of mankind and the deep seabed: A Chinese perspective. In: Lodge MW (ed) International seabed authority: 10th anniversary. International Seabed Authority, Kingston, pp 85–102

국문 참고자료의 영문표기 English translation / Romanization of references originally written in Korean

1

Kim YK (2002) Korea and the international law of the sea. Hyoseong, Seoul, 948 p

2

Park K (2019) The works done by the UN International Law Commission during its 70th session (2018) and the discussion done at the 6th Committee of the UN General Assembly (73rd session 2018). Korea Int'l Law Review 52:101–205

10.25197/kilr.2019.52.101
3

Yoon K (2018) A study on the structure and effect of presidential executive orders in the United States. Adm Law J 54:45–66

10.35979/ALJ.2018.08.54.45
Information
  • Publisher :Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology
  • Publisher(Ko) :한국해양과학기술원
  • Journal Title :Ocean and Polar Research
  • Journal Title(Ko) :Ocean and Polar Research
  • Volume : 48
  • Pages :1-23
  • Received Date : 2026-04-06
  • Revised Date : 2026-05-22
  • Accepted Date : 2026-06-11
  • Published Date : 2026-07-13
  • DOI :https://doi.org/10.4217/OPR.2026017
Journal Informaiton Ocean and Polar Research Ocean and Polar Research
Online Submission
Archives
: 2019 ~ 이전
  • scopus_OPR
  • NRF
  • KISTI Current Status
  • KISTI Cited-by
  • KCI 문헌 유사도 검사
  • orcid
  • open access
  • ccl
Journal Informaiton Journal Informaiton - close